Each plant grows two to three feet tall with a thick central stalk and several lateral branches. The central stalk is the first to bear a large cluster of tiny, dark green flower buds—the plant’s first harvest. After the central flower cluster is cut the plant will produce several smaller clusters on side branches, as many as six more harvests.

Broccoli is rich in calcium and iron and an excellent source of Vitamins A, B, and C. From seed broccoli will be ready for harvest in 80 to 90 days.

Here’s how to harvest and re-harvest broccoli:

The first flower cluster will form on the central stalk and be as large as 6 inches wide. Harvest the first flower cluster when it turns dark green. Use a knife to cut the flower head. Cut all heads so that a long stub remains on the plant.

Smaller flower clusters will soon sprout on side branches as they lengthen. These flower clusters will be about the size of large buttons. Cut new heads regularly to keep new flowers forming every few days. Each side branch will produce four to six cuttings.

Both the stem and flower buds are edible. Make every effort to harvest buds dark green and full, just before they flower.

The longest broccoli harvest is in the fall as the weather is cooling. In the spring expect regular harvests until the weather warms; warming weather will cause flower buds to open and bloom quickly.

Spring bearing broccoli plants bolt and flower when temperatures get close to 70°F. When broccoli flower heads begin to open and produce yellow flowers, trim the flowers—they are edible—and add them to salads or soups.

Broccoli varieties that are the most prolific are Early Packman, Saga, Mariner Hybrid, and Premium Crop.

Use vegetable stock for light, healthy dishes. Vegetable stock—also called vegetable broth–is a clear, thin flavored liquid—the flavor is determined by the vegetables and seasonings you choose. Aromatic vegetables are the most important contributors of flavor to vegetable stocks. Aromatic vegetables are deep and sweet flavored—most commonly onions, carrots, and celery, and also fennel, leeks, and garlic.

Storing vegetable stock in serving-size portions in your freezer can simplify meal preparation and add a truly homemade dimension to meals. You can add fresh vegetables and cooked meat to already prepared vegetable stock to make a flavorful soup.

Mirepoix (meer-pwah) is the base of one aromatic vegetable stock—two parts onions, one part celery and one part carrots. (Mirepoix is named for a French duke whose cook created this mixture.)

A colorless mirepoix—called white mirepoix—can be made by replacing the carrots in basic mirepoix with mushrooms trimmings. Leeks can be used to replace the onions. When preparing stock, avoid starchy vegetables such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, and winter squash; they will easily break down in the cooking process and cloud your stock.

Preparing Vegetable Stock–Without a Recipe

Step One. To prepare a vegetable stock chop or dice the vegetables into relatively uniform pieces (for uniform cooking); cut the vegetables into large pieces, 1 to 2 inches, to cook long, or into smaller pieces in order to release the flavor in a short cooking time. If you want a particular flavor to dominate, add a larger quantity of that vegetable. Commonly three to five vegetables are used in vegetable stock—many more vegetables may confuse the flavor.

Step Two. Sweat or sauté your aromatic vegetables in a big soup pot containing a little oil. (A heavy bottomed pot will heat most evenly.) The oil should be hot enough that the vegetables sizzle when you put them in. Stir to coat the vegetables with oil, cover the pot, and cook over medium-heat about 5 to 10 minutes, stirring occasionally; do this before you add water to the pot to create a rich flavor and deep color.

Sweating the vegetables will develop their full, mellow flavor, but you can skip this step and start by simply adding water to the raw vegetables.

Step Three. Add enough cold water to cover the vegetables—and if you are adding additional vegetables, be sure they are covered by water as well. Stock should always be started with cold water; the flavor will be drawn from the vegetables as the water heats up to a boil. For intense flavor, use less water; for a lighter, more delicate broth add more water.

Bring the water and vegetables to a boil slowly, and then reduce it right away to a simmer (bubbles just breaking the surface); a low simmer is best for drawing out the flavor. Always keep the water level above the vegetables. After the initial boiling, do not allow the stock to boil again.

Step Four. Cook the stock long enough to extract maximum flavor from the vegetables. That means taste the broth often as it cooks to discover how the flavor is developing. Maximize the flavor. If it is cooking too quickly, add more water and return to a simmer. (Cook stock too long and the flavor will lose its delicacy and freshness.)

Salt can be added to help develop flavor. Add salt to taste during cooking; don’t add all of the salt at once. You can also add herbs and seasonings such as basil, bay leaves, thyme, oregano, parsley, cracked peppercorns, and cloves depending upon the flavor you want; you can prepare these in a sachet to float in the cooking stock.

Vegetable stock simmer time will be about 15 minutes; the total cook time—sweating and simmering—for vegetable stock will be 30 to 45 minutes. Remember to taste as you cook.

Step Five. When cooking is complete, strain the stock (use cheesecloth or coarse cotton gauze) and degrease by skimming if necessary. Meat-based stocks are rapidly cooled before straining and storing for later use, but vegetable stock does not have to be rapidly cooled and there won’t be any fat to skim.

Pour the strained stock into clean containers and seal to refrigerate or freeze. You can pour the stock into ice-cube trays and later put the cubes in a freezer bag for long storage. Cubes of frozen stock can be used to sauté food without oil.

Vegetable stock or broth is flavorful but thin. Use vegetable stock as a base for soups. You can serve the broth, but while it will be tasty, it may not be filling.

A few things to keep in mind:

• You can save the liquid left over from cooking other vegetables to add to your stock pot.
• Potatoes, sweet potatoes, and winter squash—starchy vegetables—can make a stock cloudy.
• Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and artichokes are very strong flavored; use these sparingly or they will overwhelm a broth with a strong flavor or odor.
• Dark green leafy vegetables such as spinach can develop an unpleasant flavor.
• Beets can turn a stock red.

Garden beds warmed by reflected heat

A microclimate is a small area with slightly different temperature or climate than the surrounding larger area. Every garden has microclimates; microclimates can be created by hills and low spots, structures and fences, and even the shade of trees or tall plants.

You can use the microclimates in your garden to help vegetables produce a little bit better—a little faster, a little bigger, even a little tastier.

Here’s how to understand your garden’s microclimate:

Map the microclimates in your garden by noting where the sun shines most, where shadows fall and when and where breezes blow and where they don’t. Look for natural low and high spots that may stay cooler or warmer than the surrounding area. In the cool time of the year, note where patches of snow and frost disappear first and where they linger.

Take into consideration surrounding structures—a house, a shed, fences, or walls. Wood and stone structures absorb the sun’s heat during the day and release it back into the garden at night. Gardens on the south and west side of structures get the most sun each day and will warm more quickly. An east-facing garden will get the first sun each day, but can be in shadows by afternoon. North facing gardens get the least sun and stay cooler year round. North-facing slopes are cooler than south-facing slopes which also will be drier.

Cold air moves to the lowest spot in a garden—expect cool temperatures and frost to linger in low spots. A fence without an opening at the bottom of a slope can trap cold air.

Wind and breezes will increase heat loss in a garden. Winds can stress plants and slow down their development; too much wind can dessicate plants. Look for natural windbreaks when planning a garden—trees and trees lines, large shrubs and hedges that keep winds from reaching vegetable planting beds and drying them out. Consider planting natural windbreaks when planning your garden.

How to alter microclimates to benefit vegetable crops:

Locate your vegetable garden where it is not shaded by buildings or trees. Place the garden at least 20 feet away from tall trees that will cast shadows and compete for water and nutrients.

Avoid low spots that are slow to dry in the spring. Cold air will collect in these spots.

On slight slopes run rows at right angles to the slope so that each crop gets maximum sun exposure. Where slopes are steep let rows follow the contour or terrace the garden.

Crops that thrive on heat such as tomatoes, peppers, eggplants, and beans should be planted in south-facing or west-facing gardens or in rows that run north and south. Heat-loving crops can be planted close to walls and fences that absorb heat during the day and reflect it back into the garden at night.

Use stone, brick, and gravel pathways to capture the sun’s heat during the day and release it slowly into the garden at night. Stone and gravel paths can surround mounded or raised beds for crops that demand warmth and heat.

Create a thermal mass for crops to change the microclimate and aid plant growth; gallon milk containers filled with water can soak up the sun’s warmth in the day and keep plants warm at night.

Where gardens are exposed to breezes and winds, create natural windbreaks by planting dense trees such as conifers or create seasonal windbreaks by planting sunchokes, sunflowers, or corn on the windward side of the garden. If planting is not an option, create windbreaks for individual plants by propping up shingles, sheets of plastic, or staking bottomless sacks around plants.

Use cooler and warmer spots in the garden to your advantage. Cool and shady areas can be planted with salad greens and root crops during the summer. Interplant crops averse to too much sun or heat in the shadows of taller crops.

Attach shade cloth or lattice to hoops or frames above crops that want cooler temperatures during the summer. Plant leafy crops in east-facing gardens during the summer; they will be shaded in the warmest part of the day.

Review your garden’s microclimate map each season to see if there have been changes.

Garlic, onion, and shallot transplants started indoors are the quickest way to produce a crop. Garlic, onions, and shallots transplanted to the garden will be larger at harvest than those started from cloves, sets, or seeds in the garden.

Here’s how to start garlic, onions, and shallots early:

Step One: Start garlic cloves and onion or shallot sets in compartmented seed starting trays or small pots. Plant cloves and sets indoors four to six weeks before you plan to set them into the garden; that’s four to six weeks before the last expected frost date. Remember: garlic, onions, and shallots like to get their start in the cool time of the year and finish in the warm or hot time of the year; if you wait for warm weather before you start garlic, onions, and shallots you will have small bulbs at harvest time.

Fill trays or pots with a light potting mix or equal parts compost and peat moss. Set garlic cloves or onion or shallot sets into the mix—sow cloves 2 inches deep with the pointed end up; set onion or shallot sets (small bulbs) 1 inch deep.

Step Two: Set pots or trays in a sunny, south-facing window or in the greenhouse or hot house. The soil temperature should be 65°F to 80°F. Keep the soil just moist—not too wet and not dry. In three to four weeks, plants will have sprouted and roots will have begun to grow. Grow the plants on indoors until three weeks before the last expected frost.

Step Three: Garlic, onions, and shallots started indoors can go into the garden as early as four to three weeks before the last frost. Harden off young plants before transplanting by setting them outside in a sheltered spot each day for four or five days. When starts have become accustomed to the weather, transplant them out into the garden 3 to 5 inches apart depending upon the expected size of bulbs at harvest.

Onions and garlic do not like competition from weeds. Interplant onions and garlic with leafy crops such as beets or lettuce; these crops will act as live mulch—their leaves will shade the soil and keep weeds down.

Garlic will be ready for harvest 90 to 100 days after indoor start. Small onions can be harvested from sets in as little as 35 days, 80 days or more for large bulbs. Scallions can be harvest in as few as 35 days after transplanting into the garden.

Sheet composting greens and browns

A no-dig, no-till garden bed can be made by laying down layer-upon-layer of organic materials that will decompose themselves into a nutrient rich planting bed for vegetables. This no-dig, no-till method has been the basis of Chinese vegetable gardening for thousands of years; it is known as sheet composting and more recently has been dubbed lasagna gardening.

Sheet composted garden planting beds are quick draining and fast warming in spring for an early start to the growing season. They are much like unframed raised bed rising from 4 to 10 inches or more above surrounding ground. Such beds formed from raw organic materials—dry leaves, grass clipping and the like–require about three or so months for composting and settling.

Here’s how to make a no-dig, no-till layered garden bed:

Step One: Choose a spot for your planting bed that is relatively flat. It makes no difference if the ground has been worked or is fallow or if there is lawn or weeds growing there. Cover the soon-to-be planting bed with eight to ten sheets of newspaper or a single layer of corrugated cardboard. (Avoid newsprint or cardboard that uses colored ink or has a waxy surface—inks and wax can be toxic.) Soak the newsprint or cardboard with water so that it won’t fly away; this will begin the composting process.

Below the newsprint, weeds and grass will be quickly smothered and begin to break down adding nitrogen necessary for composting; as well, earthworms who will aid decomposition will be attracted to the wet darkness. No digging or tilling is necessary to prepare the ground for this start.

Step Two: Next, lay down several layers or “sheets” of organic materials—each layer to be one to four inches thick. Use the same “greens” and “browns” organic materials you would place in a compost pile: “greens” for composting are fresh, moist materials including grass clippings, fruit and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, tea bags, tea leaves, weeds that have not gone to seed, seaweed and kelp, and spent blooms and trimmings from the garden; “browns” for composting are dry materials including dry leaves, pine needles, straw, peat moss, aged manure, and shredded newsprint or paper.

Greens are rich in nitrogen; browns are rich in carbon. The carbon to nitrogen ratio ideal for composting is 30:1; this can be achieved by alternating browns and greens in nearly equal parts, but most home composters find great success by adding half again to nearly twice the amount of browns as greens.

The height to start of your no-dig, no-till layered bed should be from two to three feet; a bed this high will “cook down” or decompose to a raised mound of dark rich soil 10 to 12 inches high, more than sufficient root space for most vegetable crops.

You can make a layered bed at any time, but in the warmer part of the year microorganisms that decompose organic materials are most active and the composting process is accelerated. Allow three to four months depending upon daytime temperatures for your layered bed to decompose into rich, black humus, an ideal soil for vegetable growing. If you intend to plant in the bed sooner, add 3 to 6 inches of aged compost, planting mix, or topsoil across the top of the bed right away. This will give seeds and seedlings a home to start as the layered organic materials beneath them decompose.

Step Three: Plant in the layered bed just as you would any other raised or mounded bed. The layered planting bed will be nutrient rich, moisture retentive but well drained, and will require little weeding. All home vegetable crops should find more than enough soil depth in the layered planting bed for root growth and abundant production. After your first harvest, you can add a new layer of compost to your raised bed; adding a new one or two inch “sheet” or layer of compost to the bed twice a year will keep it nutrient rich. There will be no need to ever dig or till the bed.

No-dig, no-till gardening has been practiced for centuries. The New England gardener Ruth Stout wrote several books on this gardening method in the 1950s and 1960s. More recently the garden writer Patricia Lanza re-popularized the concept in a book called Lasagna Gardening.

Use wood ashes from natural, unpainted wood or non-shiny newsprint (shiny newsprint can include toxic inks). Use ashes from hardwood and tree prunings, avoid ashes from treated lumber or fireplace “logs” or pellets made of pressed wood chips and sawdust which may have been chemically treated.

Wood ashes—depending upon the variety of the wood being burned—can contain small amounts of phosphorus and calcium and significant amounts of potash or potassium. The plant nutrient phosphorus is important for fruit development and plant maturation; potassium and calcium improves stem strength and aides winter hardiness.

Here’s how to use wood ashes in the garden:

Collect ashes from fireplaces and stoves during the wood-burning months. Store ashes in an ashcan, metal bucket, or metal garbage can with a watertight cover. Collect ashes only when they are cold.

Scatter ashes in the garden bed at the start of the planting season before you plant. Use ½ pound per square yard. Work the ashes into the soil before planting. Don’t spread ashes too early—rain and snow will leach away the nutrients in ash. To slow leaching, mix ashes into organic amendments and mulches.

Wood ash is similar to lime in that it will reduce soil acidity. Avoid using wood ash where the soil is balanced or alkaline; too much wood ash can result in soil too alkaline for vegetable and other plant growing. A soil pH test is a good idea before applying a heavy amount of wood ash.

Scatter ash as a side-dressing around the base of plants when they are already growing in the garden. Spread the ashes a few inches from plants. Avoid direct contact between wood ash and germinating seeds or new plant roots—the potassium can burn young plants. Wood ash will discourage root maggots that attack crops such as cabbage and onions. A line of ash around plants also will turn back slugs and snails.

Use wood ash around alkaline loving crops such as artichokes, arugula, broccoli-raab, Chinese vegetables, collards, and tomatillos. Place the ash around the base of the plant in a line a few inches from the stem; do not sprinkle wood ash on plant leaves or stems.

Do not use wood ash around crops that prefer acidic soil such as potatoes, blueberries, strawberries, and parsley.

Do not add wood ashes to compost piles; wood ashes do not decompose.

Wood ash can be used like lime to reduce soil acidity. Wood ash also can be used to deter plant pests.

Use raised bed when the soil is poor—heavy clay or too loose sandy soil. Raised beds of rich, organic soil will be quick draining and full of plant nutrients.

Raised beds also can save you water and fertilizer and time. Your watering, feeding, and weeding efforts will be concentrated on the raised bed—commonly no more than 4 feet wide, and not on the surrounding unproductive ground.

Here’s how to build a garden raised bed:

1. A raised bed can as simple as a raised mound of soil. Choose the location for your planting bed and then from either side shovel surface soil to your intended growing bed. Add aged compost, planting mix, or store-bought top soil across the top of your raised mound and turn into the native soil. A raised mound should be at least 4 inches high; ten inches is better and will warm faster in spring as the sun shines on the side and top of the mound. A bed 4 feet wide will be easily accessible from either side; don’t make your raised wider than arm’s length so it is easily worked without stepping in to it. Make your raised bed just long enough to get from one side to the other.

2. Build a raised bed with timbers, planks, bricks, cement blocks, recycled concrete or wattles (landscape fabric filled with straw). Cedar or pine are the best choices for raised beds made from boards or planks; pine will last three to five years and cedar twice as long or more. Choose boards an inch or more thick and 8 inches or more wide and use posts or stakes to square off the bed at the ends. Be sure to select a flat site or rake it flat before you assemble the frame. If you live in gopher or burrowing pest country, line the bottom of the bed with hardware cloth. Once the bed is in place, fill it with aged compost and planting mix. Now you are ready to plant.

3. From one season to the next, add aged compost to your raised bed to keep it fresh and nutrient rich. You can add washed sand to beds in which you plan to plant carrots and root crops; a bit of sand will make the bed loose and friable. Raised beds can dry more quickly in hot weather—since the sides are exposed to the sun, so be sure to monitor the moisture in the soil by simply thrusting your finger into the soil every day or so to make sure it is moist, but not wet, a couple of inches below the surface.

Strawberries are easy to grow but can be difficult to grow well. Strawberries come to harvest after four or five months of growth. Well-established plants are the best producers. Where summers are hot, set out new strawberry plants in late summer so that they establish themselves in cooling not warming weather and are ready for harvest in midwinter; in the northern hemisphere set out plants in September for harvest in January.

Strawberries want to flower and come to harvest in cool to warm weather. The ideal temperature for strawberry growing is 60°F to 80°F; those temperatures allow strawberries to develop strong roots and take up nutrients necessary to produce lots of flowers and fruit. Weak plants will not produce a strong harvest and commonly will not survive summer heat–sustained temperatures of 85°F or greater. (That means a spring planting of strawberries in hot summer regions is a waste of time and effort.)

Here is a year-round growing strategy for strawberries in hot summer regions:

Late summer and fall. Plant strawberries in late summer when the days are cooling, but the soil remains warm. This is the time of year older plants will also begin to revive. Fall is not the usual time to find strawberries in nurseries or garden centers; you may have to call on strawberry growing friends to give you strong plants or established runners. Set plants into compost rich, well-drained ground at the same level they were growing before. Do not set the crown of the plant too high or it will dry out; do not set plant crowns too low or they will rot. Water transplants into place and adjust plants if they settle too deeply. Set plants about 12 inches apart allowing space for runners that will follow to fill in the bed.

Fall and early winter. Grow strawberries on during the cool time of the year. Keep the soil around establishing strawberries moist, but not wet. If leaves turn pale green with dark colored veins ease up on the watering. Water strawberries to a depth of 12 inches and then allow the soil to dry out for a few days. Adding aged compost around plants is the best fertilizer you can give them; you can never add too much compost to your growing beds. If you use a commercial fertilizer, choose one rich in phosphorus and potassium and be sure to follow the directions and not over feed plants.

When the weather turns cold, cover the bed with a portable plastic tunnel–a sheet of clear plastic (4 to 6 millimeters thick) set over a frame of half hoops or wire construction mesh; strawberries can withstand a few nights of frost, but not a sustained freeze. Be sure to ventilate the tunnel on warm days by opening the ends to fresh air. On freezing nights, put a tarp or blanket over the frame to keep it warm.

Strawberries will begin to flower and set fruit when the temperatures warm and days grow longer. If your strawberries are well established, you can expect plants to fruit abundantly until the temperatures climb into the high 80°sF.

Mid- to late-winter and spring. While the soil is still warm, spread straw around plants to keep the berries clean when plants set fruit. (You can also grow strawberries through plastic or garden fabric; set the plastic or fabric across the bed before planting.) Place straw around plants so that air can circulate beneath. When strawberries begin to ripen be sure to check them every day; pick fruit when it turns completely red but before it gets soft—it’s ok for the berries to be slightly white at the end; they will continue to ripen for a few days after picking. If you don’t need new plants, pinch away runners and let established plants grow stronger.

Summer. Shade the strawberry growing bed during the summer to reduce stress on plants and too keep plants from burning or drying out in the summer heat. Replace the clear plastic sheeting atop the hoop tunnel with 65 percent shade cloth, or place a thick layer of fresh straw atop the growing bed covering both plants and soil to keep the sun off the leaves. Again, water to a depth of 12 inches (you can check the water depth with a soil probe) allowing the straw to dry out between waterings; avoid too frequent waterings so that snails and pillbugs don’t get comfortable in the strawberry bed and mold does not begin to grow.

Year-round container growing. Hot summer region or any region, strawberries are suited for container growing. Mobile containers will allow you to take strawberries out of summer heat and winter cold. Select a container that is deep enough for strawberry roots—12 to 15 inches—and well drained. Terra-cotta or plastic strawberry pots with cup-shaped pockets around the sides are designed for multiple plants and a modest harvest. Water plants regularly, and feed plants weekly with a high potassium-low nitrogen fertilizer once flowering starts.

Here’s what to do:

1. Determine how large your planting beds will be and choose a grid paper to represent square inches or square feet in the garden. A grid of 4 x 4 to the inch cross section will give you plenty of room to plot both large and small crops. Use a separate sheet of grid paper for each planting bed.

2. Cut photos of each crop from old seed catalogs or garden magazines or sketch each crop and tape or glue the photo or sketch on sticky notes so that they can be arranged and moved around the grid paper. On each sticky note, jot the size of the crop at maturity and note the days to harvest from sowing or transplanting into the garden. Be sure each sticky note fills the appropriate number of squares on the grid paper so that you have a clear vision of your planting bed.

3. Arrange sticky notes on your grid paper taking into consideration the space required for each crop at maturity. Also consider the number of days to harvest for each crop. Group crops so that they will be easy to maintain and harvest. Consider inter-cropping tall crops next to shade loving short crops or place quick growing crops between slower growing crops so that they come to harvest before the larger crops gain full size.

4. To plan succession crops and crop rotations consider the days to harvest for the first crop and the number of days to harvest for the succession crop; make sure there are enough days in the growing season for the succession crop. Keep in mind the importance of crop rotation to stem pests and diseases; avoid planting crops from the same plant family in the same bed successively.

5. Sticky notes can be used again and again to plan new planting beds and future seasons. Make a copy of each planting bed you design; leave room to note the date you planted and the date you harvested and any growing notes for future plantings of the same crops. Well-designed and successful plantings can be filed away to use again in future growing seasons.

Parsnip roots can be used in soups, stews, and side dishes. (Learn more about cooking and serving parsnips, click here.)

The parsnip is a root crop that can be planted in spring and autumn in all regions and winter in mild-winter regions. Parsnips require 95 to 120 days to mature and reach harvest. The parsnip root is most tasty after it has come through freezing temperatures.

Planting Calendar. Parsnips require as many as 120 days to reach maturity and harvest. Freezing weather make parsnips taste sweeter as the root’s starch converts to sugar.

● Spring planting. Sow parsnips 2 to 3 weeks before the average date of the last frost in spring as soon as the soil can be worked. Germination is slow in temperatures below 45°F (12°C). Spring planted parsnips will come to harvest after the first frost in autumn or leave crop in the ground until needed. In cold regions, sow parsnips in mid spring.

● Autumn and winter planting. Sow parsnips in autumn or winter in warm-winter regions. These plants will mature more slowly and will likely come to harvest the following autumn or winter. (Tips on planting the autumn garden, click here.)

Place. Parsnips prefer full sun but will grow in partial shade. Parsnips require more than three months to reach harvest; interplant faster maturing crops such as lettuce and spinach between parsnips.

Soil. Parsnips grow best in rich, well-drained soil. Deeply work the soil to at least 12 inches (30 cm) removing any rocks, dirt clods, or roots from the planting bed which will cause parsnip roots to split and fork. Add garden compost and well-aged manure into the planting bed. Fresh manure can also cause parsnip roots to fork. Parsnips grow best in a soil with a pH of about 6.5; if the soil is more acidic add lime. In hard or stony soil, use a crowbar or dibbler to make holes 6 inches deep; fill the holes with good soil and sow 2 to 3 parsnip seeds.

Spacing. Sow parsnip seed ½ to 1 inch deep. Soak seed in warm water for 8 hours to increase germination. Thin parsnip seedlings to 6 inches (15 cm) apart in wide beds or blocks. Space rows 12 to18 inches apart. Thinning will allow for full root development of the remaining plants; cut seedlings off at ground level to avoid disturbing the remaining seedlings.

Container growing. Parsnips require adequate space for root growth; they are not a good choice for container growing.

Water. Keep the soil around parsnips moist but not wet. Reduce watering as parsnips approach harvest; too much moisture late in their season will cause the roots to crack. Mulch parsnips to keep the soil cool in hot weather; mulch heavily to protect parsnips if the ground is likely to freeze in winter.

Feed. Add plenty of compost to the planting bed before sowing. Add compost to the garden at midseason as well.

Suggested varieties. Hollow Crown Improved (95 days); All American (105 days); Harris Model (120 days).